Covenant languages

Members of the Covenant collective speak a plethora of languages, the most notable of which are listed below.

Known languages
There are thousands of languages in the Covenant Empire. All of the client species retain their own tongues to varying capacities, and due to the Covenant's long history of space colonization, many more dialects and entirely new languages have emerged as a result of natural linguistic drift. Many traders, guilds, and holy orders also speak their own languages or dialects, sometimes on purpose. As learning all of these languages would be impossible, the Covenant adopted the prominent Sangheili language Qerenoka as their lingua franca early on to facilitate communication between member groups.

Sangheili
Like all sapient species, the Sangheili have a variety of independent languages and language families within their civilization, and there are many colonies, states and clans where such languages are predominant. For historical reasons, the Qerenoka language emerged as the most prominent Sangheili language, and is thus often colloquially referred to as Sangheili.

Qerenoka
Qerenoka, commonly known as Sangheili, Pan Sangheili, Covenant Standard, or Common Speech, acts as the Covenant's lingua franca. Not all members of the Covenant can speak Qerenoka, but it is highly useful for both dealing with the empire-wide institutions of High Charity, as well as in interstellar trade.

Qerenoka descends from an ancient Sangheili language of the same name. There was always a strong case for a widely-spoken Sangheili language to be chosen as the Covenant's common tongue. There were comparatively few San'Shyuum, and it was much easier and more palatable for them to learn a new language than the other way around. However, the choice of common tongue was a topic of some contention among the Sangheili themselves, as they spoke various languages with no single hegemonic tongue. Up to seven languages each put forth as viable candidates, and while the debates were at times heated, Qerenoka eventually won out. It was at that time was a popular language of culture and trade with venerable historical roots and a widespread speaker base; even many Sangheili that did not speak it as their primary tongue did learn it for trade and higher learning.

In theory, Common Sangheili is the lingua franca of the entire Covenant Empire. But languages shift, and they shift faster the further they are from the Arterial Network of major trade routes. Nowadays, two individuals from far-flung corners of the Holy Ecumene can both speak "Qerenoka", and be mutually unintelligible to each other. The current form of Imperial Sangheili, the main dialect spoken amongst the high society and ecclesiastic authorities of High Charity is regarded as the "standard" version of the language, and is the dialect used as the standard for formal literacy in Covenant religious and governmental institutions.

Zhakhan
Zhakhan (or Tiari) is an ancient language that originated in the Tiar-Shi Sphere, specifically the Tiarang meta-culture. Variants of the language are still spoken today on Sanghelios as well as many worlds, though they do not enjoy the official empire-wide status of Standard Qerenoka. Many of its users still learn its distinctive orthography. Zhakhan has had some influence on the so-called Sonwani dialects of Qerenoka, though today this is mostly apparent in some of the roots used rather than the sound or structure of the language.

Typologically, Zhakhan is more isolating than Qerenoka, favoring the separation of morphemes over word compounding. As a result, many names in the language are composed of more than one word. Like in Qerenoka, however, adjectives precede the nouns they modify. Zhakhan allows a greater number of consonant clusters (though these are for the most part word-medial, and words still tend to end in vowels), and has several diphthongs not included in standard Qerenoka (e.g. ou, ie). As a result, it cannot be accurately rendered in the High Ecumenic syllabary, though some variants have developed a kind of Qerenokized "neo-Zhakhan" modified to fit the syllabic system of Qerenoka. This is, however, heavily frowned upon by the oft-proud speakers of Zhakhan, who still favor their own system.

May not have an l.

Brinnu
Brinnu is likewise an old language (or language family) among the Sangheili. Although it originated on Sanghelios, it has since become marginal on the homeworld, though it is widely spoken particularly in some of the more remote colonies located on the trailing and coreward sides of the Covenant Sphere.

Like Zhakhan, Brinnu is an isolating language, and the two may be distantly related. However, the adjective-noun order is reversed, with the adjective coming after the noun. Brinnu permits a greater number of word-final consonants than either Zhakhan or Qerenoka (e.g. ch/k, t), but these may not always be rendered in transliterations as they are based on Qerenokized names written in High Ecumenic.

May not have an l/r distinction.

Chiwanu
Chiwanu is a language originating on the continent of Tolvuus. Though it is still spoken natively by some groups, its most notable influence has perhaps been on various forms of Qerenoka, especially the Ikanoro dialectal continuum, though this interaction has gone both ways and modern forms of Chiwanu have long diverged from most of the Ikanoro dialects. Typologically, Chiwanu is an agglutinating language, more heavily so than Qerenoka, and so more meaning can be encoded into individual words through inflectional structures; this also means words can be quite long. Like Qerenoka, Chiwanu favors open syllables, but most forms of the language allow no coda consonants; as a result, the language is more vowel-heavy, and indeed permits strings of three vowels or more.

Chiwanu has several diphthongs not included in Qerenoka, including a more extensive inventory of rising diphthongs. It possibly lacks a p or b.

Unggoy
Unggoy languages are numerous, with most populations outside Balaho speaking some form of pidgin derived from their local Sangheili dialect with some native words added in for good measure. Native languages are still spoken despite multiple suppression attempts by the Covenant, either in response to rebellion or under the guise of "educating" the population.

Today, the most notable Unggoy language is Pana Koto, originating in the urbanized nation of Stoom, which spread its influence throughout Balaho in the early years of Covenant-Unggoy contact. While not all Unggoy learn Pana Koto, most Unggoy names, for example, are traditionally in the style of the language (even if they do not always follow its original phonotactics). Due to their natural lingual skills, many groups of Unggoy would also develop their own secret languages to communicate amongst each other, despite attempts by their masters to curtail this.

Kig-Yar
Kig-Yar languages are many and varied, and there never has been a universal common language among all Kig-Yar due to their lack of a unifying cultural ethos. Cultural practices can be easily changed to suit different conditions, and likewise, the value of language is often seen as an instrumental one, especially outside the spheres of influence of the old nations of Eayn or the earliest space colonies that tended to develop the strongest identities. By and large, the still-coherent Kig-Yar nations or cultural spheres on Eayn retain their native languages. Some of these language families have transferred over to the wider community of the Y'Deio system, undergoing the expected processes of evolution and change over time.

While individual Kig-Yar communities usually speak their own dialect or language, they usually learn at least one common tongue for reasons of trade and diplomacy. The most frequently used lingua francas among the Kig-Yar are standard Qerenoka, as well as dialects of the native Darsik and the artificial Gutterspeak (prominent among spacers) and Niirch (a language widely spoken in one of Eayn's major cultural meta-regions as well as colonies around Chu'ot). Outside the Y'Deio system, Kig-Yar colonies and crews are quick to adopt not only Qerenoka (usually some dialect of Voidspeak), but also the local dialects and languages spoken in their home domains, as a first language. Traders and pirates, in particular, rarely make an effort to hold on to their native tongues, and as a result the Kig-Yar diaspora outside their home system tends to be more uniformly Qerenoka-speaking. Although many families still retain personal naming conventions of Kig-Yar origin, some even go so far as to use Sangheili names. Though this is often seen as an attempt to increase their own status, it may just as often be the result of cultural assimilation.

Because of their physiology, the Kig-Yar have difficulty pronouncing certain sounds properly, namely those humans articulate using their lips (such as m, p, or b). They can usually produce approximations of these sounds using other vocal organs, but the specific ability to do so varies by individual and ethnic group; some groups have even genetically modified their vocal tracts in order to better fit in with the Covenant at large.

Kig-Yar spacers also use an idiosyncratic system of gestures and hand signals designed for communication in spacesuits even if inter-suit radio is unavailable. Similar gestural languages are common among spacers everywhere.

Jiralhanae
The Jiralhanae speak many languages, not all of them related. The "standard" dialect among the hegemony enforced by Tartarus and his allies is formally called Thalstron, though like most of its related languages, it is often known colloquially as Jiral. Thalstron originated in the Hrutol skein, though it has not been widely spoken until Tartarus' rise to power. Other languages include Xawena and Braknosi, the former being a prominent Vheiloth language and the latter a trade language spoken among parts of the colonial diaspora, derived from both Thalstron and Xawena elements along with influences from the Gryunjalla as well as earlier Covenant marcher dialects. In the wider Jiralhanae diaspora, many more languages are spoken, some of them descending from Proto-Thalstron or Xawena while others trace their origins to more obscure tribal languages that have long since disappeared on Doisac.

At the time of the First Immolation, the ethnic nations of Doisac spoke numerous and often unrelated tribal languages amongst themselves, but the master-packs and skeins had their own lingua francas for command and coordination. Of these languages, proto-Thalstron is best documented by Covenant philologists as it served as the root language for the dialects spoken by the master-packs that surrendered to the Covenant and would later form the basis of Tartarus' coalition.

During their interactions with the Covenant, many Jiralhanae adopted Qerenoka as a second language, with some fringe communities even transitioning to using it exclusively due to extensive trade and other cultural exchanges. By and large, however, most Jiralhanae are still brought up speaking their native tongues. With the fall of High Charity, Qerenoka is unlikely to take root among them outside acting as a secondary language to interact with the rest of the Covenant where necessary.

San'Shyuum
The San'Shyuum Reformist language emerged from Luwani, the language spoken by most of the Reformists who boarded the Anodyne Spirit. Several loanwords and foreign structures would enter the language from the non-Luwani speaking members of the group. This hybrid dialect was spoken by most of the Reformist refugees even as the Liturgical Language, Dai'nos Yll, emerged aside it as an ecclesiastic language, absorbing many influences from Luwani in the process. Due to the small size of the Reformist group, Luwani remained a relatively homogeneous language.

Though Qerenoka became the Covenant's lingua franca soon after the Writ of Union, Luwani never fully disappeared, though the low numbers of the San'Shyuum and the spread of Qerenoka over the generations saw it marginalized. It remained as a domestic language among the San'Shyuum, and its popularity has seen phases of ebb and flow over the generations. San'Shyuum sometimes use Luwani as a secret language, as most outsiders never learn it. In practice, there is considerable overlap between Luwani and the holy language Dai'nos Yll, due to large parts of the latter being derived from the former.

Liturgical Tongue
Dai'nos Yll, the Liturgical Language, is reserved solely for public worship throughout the Covenant Empire, for theological discussion, and the communication of the clergy with their parishes; it is forbidden to use for mundane purposes. Not that many would want to. Dai'nos Yll is a language of poetry and imagery, steeped in ponderous tradition. Merely saying "hello" requires very formal use of metaphor. It is a fine language for the Covenant's top-down theocracy, but unsuitable for everyday use. The finer points of Covenant theology can only be expressed in the Liturgical Tongue, for they are too esoteric and complex to be adequately discussed in more "mundane" languages. When it comes to the nature of godhood, transcendence or the divine harmonics of the Great Journey, most languages run out of words and ways to express e.g. locality, dimensions and time; the Liturgical Tongue has impressive ways to discuss phenomena in "no-time", in more than 3+1 dimensions, or in acausal relation to one another, for example.

These peculiarities are partly the result of the language's origin. Dai'nos Yll is derived from the Forerunner archival language on the San'Shyuum's keyship (known to the UNSC as Forerunner-A), albeit translated, often incorrectly, adjusted, refined and added to many times over. Terms and concepts from other Forerunner languages or ciphers encountered on various reliquaries would be introduced to its lexicon, making it increasingly complicated and flowery. Likewise, it is only permitted to be written using a particular holographic logogram system derived from Forerunner symbols. As the Forerunner archives lacked records on the language's proper pronunciation, the phonemic system is almost completely derived from the Reformist language Luwani, as are many words used to patch up the limited vocabulary used in the archives.

Covenant theology is abstruse, even frustrating, to someone not adjusted to the religion's peculiar mindset, which one can only truly learn by becoming fluent in the liturgical tongue. The higher mysticism spawned by the religion is filled with quantum probabilities, different states of being and nonbeing, and potential futures expressed in a flowery, poetic vocabulary. Because of their complexity, such concepts are often simplified in koan-like parables. Indeed, it was the sheer potential of the liturgical tongue that originally inspired many of the higher dimensions of Covenant theology. There are so many more ways to describe probabilities, potentialities, eventualities and outcomes than one might otherwise even think of. It has also resulted in theological questions where two or more answers can be equally "true" at once (which is, incidentally, also a helpful tool for settling disputes between lesser churches). Perhaps the most notable example of this is the question of the inevitability of salvation and the ultimate fate of the universe. There is a pervasive question underlining the Covenant religion of whether or not the Great Journey is the inevitable endpoint of the Covenant civilization, or if there is an equal possibility that they will be undone by Ruination. While schools vary on this, the peculiar nature of Covenant theology effectively enables both possibilities to coexist.

The intricacies of the liturgical language also help explain the complicated nature of divinity as an omni-directional continuum in space-time from the moment of ascension, explaining both how the Forerunners could be both mortal and divine simultaneously, as well as how those faithful who had died in countless past ages still join along on the Great Journey. But the language's possibilities also provoked further, more nuanced questions that can hardly even be discussed in other languages without sounding overly long-winded, confusing, or downright absurd.

Many of the Prophets' sermons are held in Dai'nos Yll and are often sung or chanted rather than spoken. Even when speaking, the language can be described as having a "sing-song" quality.

Yanme'e
Due to the Yanme'e's insectile physiology, their languages also have many unique characteristics that other Covenant languages lack. Because their vocal tracts are less developed than those of most other species, they make a heavy use of their wings and the chitinous plates of their exoskeletons to produce a variety of sounds that comprise their language alongside pheromonal signals and complex physical gestures such as flight patterns when in close distance. This also makes it virtually impossible for other species to properly learn to fully "speak" Yanme'e languages, and for them to properly speak Qerenoka without machine aid or an interpreter.

Gutterspeak
Gutterspeak is a language which can only be adequately spoken by Kig-Yar and Yanme'e. It is a completely constructed language that uses clicks, whistles, and trills beyond the range of other species in the Covenant. A purely functional language, it is known as "the tongue of laborers and pirates." Structurally derived from Darsik, a prominent Kig-Yar language, Gutterspeak notably lacks personal pronouns or articles, and the functions of those structures are instead expressed through affixes in verbs and nouns. These traits have led to many low-ranked Kig-Yar with an imperfect command of English speaking in a characteristic clipped style, partially or fully omitting pronouns and articles.

Voidspeak
Voidspeak (also known as Migrants' or Sailors' Tongue) is the translated name for the informal group of Qerenoka "vulgar" dialects used by traders and spacers across the Covenant. Although it is structurally based on Qerenoka, it has heavy "foreign" influences from various languages spoken across the Covenant, and even some words, grammatical constructions and expressions whose origins cannot be definitely pinpointed to any of the Covenant species but presumably originate from the outside. Most of the external influence comes from Kig-Yar and Unggoy languages as well as some of the regional dialects of more isolated Covenant territories. Naturally, there are several versions and little central regulation of the the Voidspeak and a dialect spoken in one end of the Holy Ecumene may not even be mutually intelligible with one spoken in another. Many traditionalist Sangheili aristocrats scorn the Voidspeak for its purported "debasement" of the "noble" Sangheili language.

Within the Covenant
To facilitate communication across this vast tangled web of languages and dialects, the Covenant has fairly advanced auto-translator technology. The translation disk was a necessary invention. The customs that grew up around them were inevitable in their own way. Many translation disks are embellished with elaborate designs to show the rank and station of a wearer, and are worn across the breast. When worn in this fashion, they are called phalera. Sometimes multiple phalerae are worn, to complement an outfit or to demonstrate the many varieties of traveler that an official must deal with. Such is the importance of phalerae that they have been cited as "the jewelry that holds the Holy Ecumene together".

Because of the Covenant's edict against machine learning, translator disks built for general use are very limited machines. They can parse words within their internal dictionaries and construct sentences in accordance to the rules of grammar and syntax, but they cannot learn new words or new usages of words or phrases. This means that a phalera is locked to a group of dialects at a particular point in time, and as those languages change, the phalera must eventually be replaced. This also means that anyone speaking to an official with a slightly-out-of-date phalera must speak a version of their language that is formal and old-fashioned to their ears, which generally suits the Sangheili just fine.

Due to the limitations of phalerae, personal flesh-and-blood interpreters are still favored among those wishing to ensure their message is communicated clearly and unambiguously where no common tongue exists between the two sides. Among those of high rank and status, interpreters can also function as status symbols. Where translation disks are mundane everyday objects available to most citizens of moderate wealth, interpreters are a form of statement, especially when interacting with those they perceive to be "below" oneself. Because of their natural linguistic skills, it is often the Unggoy who are the most capable and effective interpreters, as long as they are properly educated, and many Sangheili aristocrats' (often fairly sizable) retinues include a trusted Unggoy interpreter. These interpreters are highly valued, and are often accorded honors and privileges most Unggoy can only dream of. This is not exclusively an Unggoy job, however, as traders especially will rely on whoever they have on hand for translation. Some Sangheili lords are known to distrust Unggoy and only rely on trusted Sangheili from their own family.

It is via machine translators that the Covenant normally communicate with humans as well. The Covenant learned the English language early on by intercepting communiques from Harvest, and used it throughout the war largely to hurl curses and insults at their human foes. It largely fell upon the Unggoy to learn human languages and monitor human communications, and though some of their Sangheili and San'Shyuum superiors would also study the basics, few Sangheili would actually try and speak their enemies' tongue. Even after the war, it remains more common for Sangheili to use purpose-built phalerae or rely on human auto-translators; most prefer the former, trusting only their own technology to properly capture the nuances of their speech. There were notable exceptions, however; a handful of keen commanders such as Thel 'Vadam would study some examples of human literature (mainly older poetry and epics, as these tend to be the primary means by which Sangheili nobles learn their own language) in order to better understand their foes. This proved worthwhile after the Great Schism and the human-Sangheili alliance.

Human translation conventions
The translation of Covenant languages into English is an art of its own. During the Human-Covenant War, the Office of Naval Intelligence developed a standardized system for translating and romanizing native Covenant names and terms, which are often but not exclusively in Qerenoka or some dialect thereof. The language and romanization system humans use for Qerenoka is an approximation of the original language, as we cannot perfectly replicate all the original sounds. This also explains any possible irregularities that may exist between the common names used for Covenant individuals or places, and the phonetic rules of the original language. The romanization system used across the UNSC is meant to be as straightforward and uncomplicated as possible for clarity's sake. The Latin alphabet is used phonetically, and special diacritics or nonstandard capitalization are not used.

Consequently, many of the native Covenant names we use are effectively exonyms localized to be more legible for English speakers by substituting sounds deemed too "alien" with familiar ones. Certain themed conventions also apply, and some of these can be rather fanciful. For example, early on, ONI xenolinguists picked up on a pattern of certain Jiralhanae names superficially resembling ancient Roman ones, which led to an established convention whereby Jiralhanae names are rendered in pseudo-Latin, e.g. Castor, Tartarus, or Maccabeus. In many cases, these translations are a definite stretch as far as accuracy to the native form of the name goes, but the Latinized names have been found to be more catchy within the UNSC at large. In addition, terms in the Liturgical Language have been sometimes translated to Latin based on the similar role of the two in their respective civilizations, though this convention is far less fixed, and discouraged by xenolinguists. Sangheili names are mostly transliterated accurately to their original form, though some foreign sounds may be substituted for ones found in English. For example, "Thel" is an Anglicized form of "T'elo", where the apostrophe is used to indicate that the preceding consonant is ejective, whereas the final "o" is technically present due to the phonetic rules of the language, but in practice weakly vocalized.

In some cases, the UNSC terms have little to do with the original Covenant terminology. This is the case with most Covenant starship classifications given by the UNSC; for example, certain older Covenant ship types are named after older maritime ship classes, such as carracks or galleons to evoke their antiquity. Several native Jiralhanae ship classes are also named after ancient Norse ship types, a convention frowned upon by even those xenolinguists who favor the use of familiar terms as stand-ins for native equivalents, due to its inconsistency with the Greco-Roman theme assigned to Jiralhanae given names. Rather, it is preferable to use the original name or a translation thereof, e.g. "voidpiercer" or "attack ship".

Overall, different types of Covenant names can be found in various records:
 * Names in romanized Qerenoka. Names may be transliterated from written or oral sources, and the former are almost always more accurate to the original form than the latter due to dialectal differences. Although most of those used today aim to be reasonably accurate to the original pronunciation, some of the names in common usage are partially anglicized, which often includes the omission of certain epenthetic or word-final vowels, the simplification of the Latin alphabet spellings of certain alien sounds, and using distinctly familiar Latinate (or Indo-European) structures (e.g. the digraph /th/, or certain combinations such as /ld/) in place of more alien ones. While modern translation conventions favor remaining faithful to the original form, certain anglicized names such as "Tartarus" have become so established in common usage as to effectively become human exonyms for the alien individuals, concepts and places.
 * English names translated from Standard Qerenoka, or its best-known dialects. These are the easiest to interpret, and assign meanings to. However, shortcuts are still often taken by translators to make alien concepts more readily understandable, which tends to flatten the meaning of the name. Brevity is also often exercised if an accurate translation would be cumbersome, though some longer translations are preserved (e.g. Long Night of Solace).
 * Native names in non-Qerenoka languages in Qerenokized form. These are names that may or may not have meaning in other Covenant languages but have been rendered according to the phonological rules of standard Qerenoka, as is custom in many Covenant institutions such as the ministries. These are left untranslated if their meaning is not known, which is often the case. Some names are of unknown origin and meaning, even to the Covenant themselves, or at least those Covenant sources the UNSC has access to, largely due to linguistic and cultural drift over time.

Writing systems
Numerous types of writing system were in use among the Covenant, with three being formally used by the institutions of High Charity.

Low Ecumenic
Low Ecumenic is a pseudo-alphabet that is usually regarded as being easier to master than High Ecumenic orthography. Often used in informal contexts and by non-native speakers of Qerenoka, Low Ecumenic is also better suited for writing in different languages and dialects, as the nature of High Ecumenic limits the number of sounds and syllables that can be written to those included in Standard Qerenoka. Low Ecumenic features characters representing most consonant sounds found in the most popular Covenant languages, or at least close approximations thereof. Vowels can be notated with special diacritics appended to each consonant character, though depending on the context, these are sometimes omitted.

The vowel markers are not separate glyphs but diacritics added to the consonant/syllabic markers.

High Ecumenic
The main writing system used for day-to-day communication within the Covenant's fleets and political organizations was the alphasyllabary known as High Ecumenic. The system is mainly based on triangle and dot shapes, and is meant to contain all possible syllables in standard Qerenoka, with modifications made to each syllable character based on its ending. High Ecumenic also includes a system of ideograms representing entire words, stems, or concepts that may be used alongside the syllabic characters. Because of its comprehensiveness, the number of characters is fairly large, though many of them are often omitted or substituted with simplified notation in casual use.

Holy script
Used exclusively to write religious texts in Dai'nos Yll, the holy script is derived from the archives on the Forerunner keyship as well as various later Forerunner discoveries.

Ideogrammatic symbols
The Covenant also use various Forerunner symbols to represent various concepts. Although the symbols were seemingly used as an ideogrammatic system by the Forerunners, many of the Covenant-assigned meanings are best guesses at best, as the Covenant would often come across Forerunner symbols but lacked a comprehensive guide to decipher all of them.

Forerunner symbols were largely used as runic characters to indicate blessings given to an individual or even a ship as signs of distinction and merit; a Sangheili warrior, for example, might receive holy symbols on his armor and noncombat livery as signets of bravery, loyalty or skill. These are formally ordained in specific ceremonies and are highly regarded by any who can read the mystical meanings of the symbols.

Har Tanqi
A classical Sangheili logographic script predating the Covenant, Har Tanqi is predominated by curved shapes such as ovals, ovoids, circles, and dots. Popular in calligraphy, poetry, and organization emblems, Har Tanqi has various additional features such as the ability to convey intonation.