Qerenoka

Qerenoka (formally Q'erenok'a), commonly known as Sangheili, Pan Sangheili, Common Sangheili, Imperial Sangheili, Common Speech, and known to the UNSC as Covenant-A or Covenant Standard for much of the Human-Covenant War, is the common name for the Covenant's lingua franca, and the most common of the myriad languages spoken within the Holy Ecumene. Qerenoka is descended from the original language chosen as the Covenant's common language at the time of the Writ of Union, but it has since evolved considerably and spawned numerous dialects and offshoot languages.

Structually, Qerenoka is a head-final language. It has some inflectional structures, including case marking via postpositions, and uses reduplication to distinguish between dynamic and stative verbs. Phonological distinctions include the use of ejective consonants, phonemic vowel length, and a series of exotic co-articulated consonant sounds.

History
The proto-form of Qerenoka originated on the Sanghelian continent of Qivro, where it was once the language of several of the planet's early major empires. During this time, it incorporated several influences from other languages, prominently those in Yermo and Tolvuus, through cultural exchange both violent and peaceful. The second major wave of external influence came with the San'Shyuum contact and the founding of the Covenant, when Qerenoka adopted many loanwords from the Reformist language Luwani along with some changes to its phonology due to the San'Shyuum's inability to pronounce some of the original sounds.

Modern Pan Sangheili's relationship to the original, Writ of Union-era Qerenoka is roughly analogous to that of modern Italian to Latin, and perhaps even more distant. Because Qerenoka is spoken by a vast collective, it is by nature highly eclectic, being more aptly described as a language family than a singular language and encompassing hundreds if not thousands of dialects and subvariants, many of which are only barely mutually intelligible or not at all.

The version of Qerenoka documented here describes "Pan Sangheili", or the standardized version of the language spoken in High Charity, as of the 9th Age of Reclamation. Pan Sangheili is spoken natively by much of the Covenant population, but also serves as an auxiliary language to those who speak either divergent dialects or entirely unrelated languages. The language is institutionally regulated by a specific body within the Ministry of Edification of High Charity, though this has not always been so. This has also slowed down the natural evolution of the language, and its structure and core vocabulary have stayed relatively unchanged for centuries. Loanwords and colloquialisms from various other languages do regularly enter it, however, often coinciding with contacts with new species or the incorporation of dialectal trends. There are also institutions on Sanghelios and other worlds claiming to represent the ultimate authority on the language, and high nobles often have strong opinions on the "proper" way to speak the language.

Many sounds once present in ancient Qerenoka and other Sangheili languages have disappeared from Pan Sangheili, leaving only sounds that can be produced in some way by most of the Covenant's member species; mainly the San'Shyuum. Overall, Writ of Union-era Qerenoka featured more guttural sounds than the modern Pan Sangheili, which does not utilize the Sangheili's entire vocal range. Some native Sangheili languages also utilize a range of whistles and roars which cannot be reproduced by most species.

As the Covenant's lingua franca, the Qerenoka language family has a noticeable influence on other languages spoken within the collective. Native languages spoken by other species such as Unggoy, Kig-Yar, Jiralhanae as well as regional dialects frequently and often inadvertently pick up diction, concepts, or phrases from either Imperial Sangheili or the local Sangheili dialect, as it almost always serves as the domain-level language of communication between the regional authorities and their subjects, and is often used for commerce. This phenomenon is pervasive enough to have an recognized concept in Covenant linguistics; translated to English, it is styled as "Sangheilization".

High Sangheili
High Sangheili or Poetic Sangheili is a high-register version of the language used by the higher aristocracy, in governance, as well as in poetry and literature. It retains a number of "archaic" phonetic, grammatical and lexical traits that have long disappeared from the Common Speech, and is claimed by some to be Sangheili distilled to its "purest" form, retaining the classical Sangheili of old literature and poetry. At times, influential authors and philologists attempt to introduce what some other scholars wryly recognize as more or less artificial constructions that seek to make the language even more artful or "classical" in style; one common strategy is to minimize the amount of loanwords going back thousands of years. To the average speaker of common Sangheili, many of the archaisms, elaborate word constructions and obscure inflections used in High Sangheili would be almost unrecognizable. It is a matter of pride for orators, poets and philosophers to master these nuances as well as the associated ideogrammatic systems. Consequently, it is mostly spoken by Sangheili, hence the name.

A notable phonetic trait of High Sangheili is its disciplined vowel use, as it is considerably less tolerant of vowel reduction than the standard spoken language.

Ecclesiastic dialect
Spoken by most San'Shyuum and some Sangheili involved with the clergy, the Ecclesiastic dialect is effectively Qerenoka spoken with a Dai'nos Yll or Luwani accent. This involves a generally "softer" and more musical sound as well as distinctive retroflex consonants. It also features several loanwords from religio-philosophical terms not commonly used in standard dialects. Variants of the ecclesiastic dialect are mostly spoken among the religious hierarchy of High Charity, as well as some diocesan worlds and worldships where the influence of of the clergy is at its strongest.

Vulgar dialects
Vulgar Qerenoka is a blanket term for the common vernacular varieties of the language, particularly those among the lower classes and other species, though certain divergent dialects spoken by Sangheili are not exempt from the classification. This often includes varying degrees of simplified grammar, basic lexicon, many cases of vowel dropping, and a high amount of loanwords depending on the context. The spacer creole dubbed Voidspeak is sometimes considered an extreme form of vulgar Qerenoka.

Ikanoro dialects
A notable and old group of dialects most prominent in the Covenant's spinward side. The common trade tongue of the Irshun League is also a prominent example of an older Ikanoro variant, though it has lost its former predominance due to the influence of Standard Qerenoka. The Ikanoro dialects allow a higher number of syllable codas than the standard language, e.g. epenthetic vowels after /l/ and /r/ are regularly dropped both word-medially and finally, though where this is applied depends on the specific dialectal variant. Though originally descended from dialects spoken in parts of the continent of Yermo, the Ikanoro continuum has since come to include dialects that have considerable phonological influence and loaned vocabulary from the old Tolvuusan trade language Chiwanu (though the latter may also be classified as their own subcategory). Today, the Ikanoro moniker is mostly used out of convenience and includes a fairly wide range of dialects that share similar traits, even if they have different origins. Many of the Ikanoro dialects also exhibit weakening of the ejective consonants.

Sonwani dialects
The Sonwani dialects (or Sonwan-Mesale dialects depending on the definition) are partly influenced by Zhakhan, one of the other major Sangheili languages. They include a distinct f-like sound in place of standard Qerenoka's /b/ and /v/, though in some of the dialects this has further morphed into "th" or "dh". Like the Ikanoro continuum, Sonwani dialects allow a greater number of coda consonants. Another notable trait is the sound change from /s/ to /z/ in some word-medial contexts. Some of the Sonwani dialects preserve the archaic or hypercorrect trait of maintaining the /n/ phoneme as /n/ when followed by b or p, when in the standard language it becomes an /m/.

Phonology
Romanization of Qerenoka, developed over time by the Office of Naval Intelligence and later various universities, is meant to use the Latin alphabet phonetically, though there are some cases where a word's or name's pronunciation has previously been ambiguous and has caused an erroneous spelling (or a dialectal variant of a name) to be coined as standard.

Stress is regularly antepenultimate, i.e. on the third-to-last syllable.

Phonemes / Romanization / Simplified romanization Parentheses denote allophonic sounds; i.e. they occur in certain phonotactic contexts but are not regarded as separate phonemes.

Ejective consonants are written with a following apostrophe, and the r is the tap [ɾ]. The language has long vowels, represented by a doubled vowel, and occasionally has geminates, also written doubly. Likely the most challenging aspect of the phonology are the consonants with a velar release. These are written as if they began with a consonant cluster, but they occur at every point of articulation—namely, pkh [pˣ], tkh [tˣ], kkh [kˣ], and qkh [qˣ], and even the fricative (or fricative-ending) consonants skh [sˣ], shkh [ʃˣ], and chkh [tʃˣ].

In the standard romanization mode, sounds are always pronouned consistently regardless of where they appear in a word.

The above represent sounds as they're pronounced by Sangheili in the "standard" dialect of the language (as defined by the Ministry of Edification). Other dialects feature a number of different or additional sounds, the most notable of which are listed below. In addition, the various Covenant species' vocal tracts vary greatly and many sounds are substituted by others depending on a species' physical ability to speak the language, though the standard Covenant form already limits the number of sounds because of the need for standardization and mutual usage.

The ejective consonants are not phonemically distinct from their non-ejective counterparts, and may be pronounced as non-ejective in certain phonetic contexts, e.g. after another consonant or if one is speaking quickly. There is also much variation in this in the spoken language, as all speakers cannot easily produce the ejective sounds or are not accustomed to doing so. Some or all of the ejectives have also been lost in some dialects; e.g. many Ikanoro ones. Because of their inconsistent realization, as well as the lack of need to distinguish them from their "plain" counterparts in all but academic contexts, the apostrophes signifying them are often dropped in romanized names and terms.

The standard dialect uses the voiced alveolar tap for its /r/ sound (as opposed to a rolled r). The allophonic voiced alveolar approximant represented by /rh/ is near-exclusively found in the word-initial position, except in compounds. The latter is realized in some dialects as a sound akin to a rolled /r/. A rolled "r" also occurs word-medially in some dialects, in which case it is usually romanized as /rr/.

Note that vowel length is phonemically significant; e.g. "nguuro" and "nguro" would be different words.

Standard Qerenoka includes the following diphthongs: /ai, au, ei/. Two-vowel sequences other than these (e.g. /oa/, /ia/) occur in syllable boundaries, but these are vocalized as separate vowels; a separating apostrophe is sometimes used to indicate this. Other dipthongs do occur in dialects and loanwords, however.

Note that in the standard romanization mode, /y/ does not occur as a vowel and always represents the consonant /j/ (the "y" in you). However, several transcribed names that are now standard still use the letter to represent the close front rounded vowel /y/ or close approximation (which does occur dialectally) or vocalic sequences such as /i/, /ai/, or /wai/.

Phonotactics
The language permits the following syllable structures: CV(C) / CVV / CV / V, where V can be a long vowel or a diphthong. Most consonants and all vowels can occur as onsets, but only /n/, /s/, and /ng/ may serve as codas. The /n/ phoneme becomes /m/ when followed by /p/ or /b/ (though the former is a rare combination, and the n>m mutation does not appear to be universal) in which case a syllable can have an /m/ coda.

Because of the limited number of allowed codas, consonant clusters are uncommon and, with select exceptions, only occur at syllable boundaries following a coda consonant. There are restrictions as to what sounds can follow a consonant; generally, s and n can be followed by any nasal, some stops, and glides (y and w). Glides can occasionally occur after stops even word-initially (e.g. gw). Triconsonantal groups are very rare in the major dialects. (Sequences such as "shkh" or "chkh" are conceits of the romanization system rather than true consonant clusters, as they represent singular sounds the Latin alphabet simply lacks letters for.)

Word-initial consonants
Any consonant may occur word-initially.

Word-initial consonant clusters
In the standard language, /w/ can occur after nasals and stops (e.g. /dw, tw, gw, nw, mw), though /y/ is also encountered in select cases after nasals (e.g. /ny/, though this is usually realized as /ng/ in speech). /mg/ occurs initially in some words, most prominently Mgalekgolo, but it is phonemically indistinct from /ng/. Similarly, an "empathic nasal" often romanized as "mn" occurs on some occasions (such as certain names), but it is often left untranscribed or transcribed as "ng". While word-initial consonant clusters are not common in Qerenoka, dialectal varieties occasionally absorb certain characteristic clusters from other languages they are in frequent contact with.


 * Ikanoro: many Ikanoro dialects permit stops after word-initial nasals, e.g. nd, ns, nz. Some also allow certain stops after r (e.g. rt).
 * Sonwani: sz, dr, nj (replaces /ng/ in the word-initial position)

Word-final consonants
Only /s, n, ng/ in the standard language. However, the /n/ phoneme is realized as /m/ in select situations, and there are significant inconsistencies in how the various nasals are romanized, with n or ng being transliterated as m or vice versa.

In dialectal variants, the following occur, usually as formalizations of final /u/ or /i/ elision:


 * Ikanoro: l, r, t, k (in addition to standard set)
 * Sonwani: k ~ kh, b, l, r, d (in addition to standard set)
 * Word-final /t/ in Ikanoro corresponds to Sonwani's final /d/, and standard Qerenoka's final /t'u/.

Word-final consonant clusters
None, except in dialects.


 * Ikanoro: /ln/ (normally /lin/), mr (normally /mur/),
 * Sonwani:

Word-medial consonant clusters
The following consonant clusters can be found in syllable boundaries in each major formally-defined dialect and dialect group. Especially common sequences in each category are marked in bold. Brackets indicate rare groups mostly found in uncommon words, loans or archaic terms.

Vowels
Any vowel (including doubled vowels) can occur word-initially or finally, but diphthongs do not commonly occur word-initially.

Vocalic sequences longer than two vowels must be broken up by a glottal stop or another consonant.

Some word-medial or final epenthetic vowels are occasionally reduced, though how clearly they are vocalized depends on the register and dialect of the speaker. In colloquial speech, many speakers may also use shortened forms of words, especially when speaking rapidly, e.g. waruut'o > waruut > wort. Vowels such as /u/ and /a/ may in certain phonetic contexts be reduced following consonants such as /l/, /k/, or one of the ejectives. This is formalized to varying extents in the Ikanoro dialects, where certain reduced vowels are dropped altogether after l, r, and t.

Romanization irregularities
Since Covenant orthographic systems do not map neatly onto the Latin alphabet, and because members of the Covenant speak a variety of dialects, there is a great amount of variety in the spellings of romanized Sangheili terms and names. Some of these variant spellings use characters not featured in the "standard" mode of romanization, or do not line up with the phonotactic rules described on this page. Humanity initially decoded the language based on audio, which gave rise to various spelling modes, though the later decoding of the High and Low Ecumenic orthographies has led to the adoption of a more standardized system. Transcriptionists faced considerable difficulty in interpreting many of the more exotic sounds, which cannot be produced by a human vocal tract, and this confusion was compounded by dialectal variety or different registers among speakers. Now that a more consistent system has been established, however, it is best practice to follow the standard rules when transcribing names.

English transcriptions of Covenant names often drop vowels from Covenant names, a phenomenon especially common with reduced word-final vowels, which occur in certain phonetic contexts and dialectal variants. This commonly happens if the preceding sound is one of the ejective consonants, e.g. Malurok'a > Malurok. Depending on the dialect, word-final vowels (usually u or i) after l, m, k, and r (and occasionally t) are often so weakly vocalized that they are omitted in romanized names. "Silent" vowels (often u or i) are also dropped word-medially in certain transcribed names and terms, especially when they occur after r.

Many established Sangheili names also have various other consonant sequences (e.g. Rtas, Thel). These are the result of either nonstandard romanization, or dialectal varieties of the language. In the case of the names Rtas and Thel, they are rendered reasonably accurately according to their common phonetic forms. A more "academic" spelling of Rtas would be "Rutas", but because the u is silent, it is dropped. Likewise, Thel is an anglicized form of "T'elo", using the more familiar (if perhaps misleading) digraph "th" to represent the ejective t and dropping the near-silent final vowel.

The human confusion involving word-final vowels also partly has to do with the way Covenant orthography notates vowels, which may not always be marked depending on the writing system used, or the marking is unclear to non-natives.

While the formal romanization mode lacks c, f, th, and x, all of these occur in some established names as well as regional dialects of Qerenoka in some capacity. This is not uncommon; many Sangheili from provincial backgrounds have more than one accepted form of their name in different dialects. More often, however, divergent spellings are merely the result of different human transcriptionists following different standards at a time when target identification was more important than strict phonemic accuracy or consistency. In addition, some of the more exotic consonants in the table are sometimes simplified in non-academic romanization. This happens especially with the names of places or individuals in English. Although it is better practice to use the full form, many now-established names use nonstandard romanization. Common idiosyncrasies of simplification include:
 * C usually represents /k/, sometimes /ch/ or even /kh/. It has been used to transcribe /s/ in some names, though due to the ambiguity of the letter, transcription manuals recommend using either /k/ or /s/ rather than /c/ for the sake of clarity. In proper usage, c is only found in the romanizations of ch and chkh.
 * F is used by some transcriptionists either to interpret the alien sound /pkh/, or a dialectal pronunciation of the b/v phoneme.
 * /pr/ represents an alternate interpretation of /pkh/, as the pronunciation of the velar release varies.
 * X, as in Xytan Jar 'Wattinree, represents /kh/, /qkh/, or /x/ depending on the translator. It is sometimes used to represent the velar fricative release in the co-articulated consonants (e.g. chkh>chx, shkh>shx, tkh>tx, qkh>qx) but this usage is nonstandard.
 * The ejectives /p', t', k', q'/ are sometimes spelled as /ph, th, kh, qh/ in informal contexts, but it is better practice to simply omit the apostrophe as /ph/ can also be used for /pkh/ and /kh/ is its own phoneme.
 * The digraph /th/ occurs in various translated names, but it represents an ejective t or tkh, unlike in English, where it usually denotes the voiceless dental fricative θ.
 * /dz/ has been interpreted as "jj" in some now-standard names, such as Jjaibii Shroud and the form "Jjaaro" for "Dzaaro", one of the Covenant's names for the Forerunners.
 * /j/ (which is used to transcribe dʒ) has been interpreted as /dj/ in a previous romanization mode that transcribed /y/ as /j/. An example of this is Djyrn Ultimatum, which is more properly romanized as "Jirun" and pronounced with a reduced "u".
 * Digraphs such as /bh/, /lh/, and /dh/ are used in some romanized names. These usually represent the aspirated consonants common in Dai'nos Yll. They are usually pronounced as their non-aspirated counterparts by native speakers of standard Qerenoka, but have been formalized in some dialects more closely connected to High Charity.
 * In some cases, the digraph "ch" is anomalously used for the voiceless velar or uvular fricatives (x/χ), otherwise spelled as "kh" (whereas "ch" is used for the voiceless postalveolar affricate tʃ). This occurs particularly in word-final contexts in a handful of dialectal names, such as Nolroch (more properly Nolrokh in the local dialect, Noluroka in the standard register), but is occasionally encountered elsewhere.
 * /t/ and especially /d/ are expressed as glottal stops (') in some dialects.
 * tkh, ts'/ts, and tskh are often used interchangeably in romanization as "tk" or "ts"
 * chkh is sometimes spelled as "chk" or "ckh"
 * ch'/ch, chkh, j, which are allophones of the same phoneme, are often spelled interchangeably as either "ch" or "j".
 * sh, shkh, zh may be spelled as "sh" or "zh".
 * skh may be rendered as "sk" or "sh"
 * kh, qkh and kkh are occasionally all interpreted as "x".
 * The various realizations of the "n" phoneme are spelled in a number of different ways (e.g. /ng/, /nj/, /nn/), often as a simple "n".

Apostrophes
Note also the appropriate uses for apostrophes in the above table; that is, they are primarily used to represent the ejective consonants p', t', k', q', ts', and ch'. They are also used for the glottal stop, which, phonemically, functions like any other consonant. The glottal stop is often used to divide up vowel strings to indicate that two or more vowels are pronounced separately, as in "Yanme'e", though this practice is not always diligently followed when it comes to non-diphthong vowel combinations, and is mostly done with cases where the pronunciation would otherwise be unclear, as with combinations of more than two vowels. Apostrophes should not be used decoratively or simply for the sake of making a name look more "alien". As a general rule, ejectives and glottal stops are near-universally followed by a vowel. In exceptional cases, they are used to convey nonstandard mid-word stress (mostly in loanwords), but such cases are uncommon in actual Qerenoka words because of the language's structure.

The use of apostrophes as ejective signifiers is an inelegant artifact of human romanization, since native Covenant ortography treats the ejective form as the default and thus would not mark it separately. Consequently, the apostrophes signifying the ejectives are often omitted in non-academic usage, e.g. T'uluba > Tuluba. Most names in this wiki follow this policy, and only rarely is the ejective marking preserved for aesthetics or for clarity.

Grammar
Typologically, Qerenoka is a strongly head-final language that generally uses a subject-object-verb word order, though the use of case marking technically allows the subject and object to switch places in certain contexts. Its morphosyntactic alignment is ergative-absolutive. It has some case-like postpositions, with no agreement. Adjectives and possessors precede the nouns they modify, as do relative clauses. There are no definite/indefinite articles; definiteness is indicated by context. Similarly, the language does not distinguish between the plural and singular forms of most nouns; this is indicated by context as well as demonstratives and pronouns. In addition, many verbs function as nouns depending on context, and vice versa.

Case particles
Cases are, in this case, little tags that let you know what role a noun plays in the sentence. Ergative and absolutive are grammatical; vocative is for direct address; the rest aside from the benefactive are locative.

While they properly romanized as separate words from the parent noun, the case markers are occasionally treated like suffixes, sometimes with an intervening apostrophe. This is done especially when transcribing names, as separating the case marker is not strictly necessary to distinguish it from the rest of the word. This practice is formalized in some Ikanoro dialects, where the particles are affixed into the parent word.

The ergative “o” is placed directly after a noun that effects the action of the verb. For example, in K’uucho o domo ruuk’inatan, “The warrior attacks the human”, k'uucho “warrior” is followed by “o” because it’s the one that causes the attacking to happen. Domo gets no tag.

Some of the case particles (mostly the adessive, allative, benefactive, elative, and rarely the inessive) fulfill many functions besides their direct meaning and some of them can be used to do interesting things with names, for example. E.g. the name Reheba is formed by combining Rehe ("hope") with a version of the elative case marker, which gives us a meaning of roughly "Borne of hope" or "Hope-borne". Note that not every appearance of a case-like word ending is a grammatical usage of that postposition, e.g. the names Reme or Dazreme are not using the inessive.

Some case constructions are sometimes omitted in everyday speech, especially by non-native speakers. One example is the benefactive, which is sometimes considered archaic and is mostly used in formal speech. When speaking in a casual register, it is usually replaced with the allative.

Possession
Qerenoka has no dedicated genitive case, and possession is described with several different cases depending on the nature of the possessive relationship.
 * For example, K’uucho oni zhuro would be “the warrior’s weapon”. Presumably this is one the warrior owns.
 * K’uucho ni zhuro would also be “the warrior’s weapon”, but the implication would be it was one they just picked up, or was an improvisational weapon—one they happened to have.

Now, let’s say the warrior has their father’s weapon. You’d probably say something like K’uucho oni nejo ga zhuro. That is, “the weapon FROM the father TO the warrior”. You can also make fun distinctions like K’uucho me ik’o “the warrior’s eye(s)” (presumably still in there), and k’uucho ba ik’o “the warrior’s eye(s)” (which, regrettably, have been removed for some reason).

The inessive case is used for innate characteristics and abilities, e.g. Hirajo me haat'u "The blessed one's ability".

The benefactive case is used to indicate that something is for the purpose of another thing. It is also used to signify appositive relationships indicated in English with the preposition "of", including the names of institutions as well as certain honorific titles, etc. It is debatable whether the benefactive is an actual case or more akin to a suffix, and its uses are more common in formal speech and poetry than day-to-day communication.

Pronouns
The third-person pronouns only distinguish between animacy/inanimacy; there are no gender-specific pronouns (c.f. the English singular "they"). The inclusive/exclusive distinction in the first person plural pronouns (i.e. “we”) signifies a difference between “you and us” vs. “us and not you” (“riin” vs. “jaari”). The second-person pronouns make a distinction between plural and singular "you", similar to the archaic English thou/you distinction. The plural "you" may be used deferentially when addressing superiors.

Verbs
There is a distinction between dynamic and stative verbs. The understanding of the tenses will change depending on the type of verb. This should be familiar to English speakers, as we do the same thing. (Cf. “I like pizza”~“I’m liking pizza” vs. “I eat pizza”~“I’m eating pizza”.)

A dynamic verb is one where there has been some actual change in the world—where some action has taken place (e.g. “call”, “crush”, “send”). A stative verb is one that reflects more of an internal state (e.g. “understand”, “be useful”, “forget").

Sangheili has eight tenses, but the meanings of those tenses vary depending on whether the verb is stative or dynamic. The forms are relatively simple, except for the reduplicative, which enjoys a lot of use. For dynamic verbs, it’s the imperfect tense ("I was x'ing"); for stative verbs, the emphatic.

Here are some examples:
 * ch'in ~ ch’injin “stab”
 * naya ~ nenaya “fertilize egg"
 * opkho ~ pkhaapkho “bend"
 * pkhungo ~ pkhubungo “sleep"
 * qkhoso ~ qkhoghoso “walk"
 * satkha ~ sasatkha “be sure"
 * tkhop’o ~ tkhaadop’o “name”
 * zaya ~ zaazaya “expand"
 * ik'o ~ ch'anik'o "see"

Something that’s missing from these are the question forms. When asking a yes/no question, there are special forms for the verbs used with a reduced set of tenses (4). You’ll hear them when questions are asked.

For example, Jan o tkha q’unqijaga, k’e daaghajahe? “Are you worried I’ll forget?” Before the comma is the “I’ll forget” part. K’e is “you”. Daagha is “worry”, and the -jahe suffix is the one you’ll hear with questions. (= "That I'll forget, you worry?")

The demonstratives are more or less explicable (this, that, yonder, at an unknown place, nowhere).

Lexicon
Qerenoka makes use of compounding in word formation, both by joining verbs and nouns as well as various derivational affixes. Most compound words are closed, i.e. the distinct stems are treated as one word as opposed to separating them with spaces or special characters like apostrophes or hyphens. However, the glottal stop is sometimes used to indicate a word boundary where a word-final consonant (e.g. k, r, h, etc) has been lost.

Verb construction
Instrumental prefixes are used to derive new verbs from verb bases. This is similar to English verbs like “deduce”, “produce”, “induce”, “adduce”, etc.

The prefixes are often used in a fairly abstract sense. A basic verb would be duje “to molt”. From that, the following have been derived:
 * moduje: lose track of
 * juunduje: make look good
 * gaiduje: sully

Another example using ghaina “to hear”:
 * banghaina: sense
 * t’ighaina: understand

This is khawa “to say”:
 * gaikhawa: guess
 * khekhawa: respond
 * juukhawa: claim
 * t’ikhawa: chat, speak with

If you compare the prefixes and their original meanings plus approximate uses, then combine them with the original verbs, you can get a sense of how the words are built. The instrumental prefixes are variously used for nouns as well.

Other affixes
The language also has a variety of additional prefixes and suffixes that may be used to modify words, or derive new words from roots. Note that the affixes are always used contextually and meant to blend with the original word, e.g. vowels are added between consonants where phonotactically necessary. If it's an old and well-established word, parts of the affix may also disappear over time. In addition, not all words are formed like this. Many are loans from other languages or formed other ways. The vowel in the parentheses can typically be substituted with any vowel that the preceding word ends in.

Numbers
Qerenoka, and the Covenant in general, uses a base-12 numeral system.


 * one = dzi
 * two = yoto
 * three =  ghoyo
 * four = kkhoni
 * five = ghezi
 * seven = wesa
 * eight = niba
 * nine = ula
 * ten = rilas
 * eleven = uramu
 * twelve = sho
 * 120 = tsonka

Determiners and conjunctions

 * eya = no
 * q'a = but
 * ze = and

Boldface denotes root-level words that see a lot of use in compounds and derivations. Most of these words refer to biological and familial concepts, landscape features, and basic tools, and are exceedingly ancient.

The rest are words that have supposedly emerged in later phases of the language's evolution, including many terms derived from roots as well as loanwords. Most of the latter come from other Sangheili languages in early phases of intercultural contact, with later ones mostly being from Luwani or Dai'nos Yll after the Writ of Union; these tend to be very specialized religious terms. Some words have also been borrowed from other species' languages, such as those of the Unggoy and Kig-Yar, but these are considerably rarer outside colloquial contexts. In later generations, the institutional regulators of the standard language have become fairly conservative about loanwords, and preference compounds or affixing derivations over direct loans. Many of these are calques translated more or less directly from other languages at various stages of history.

Note that ejective consonants are not notated in the following. However, the relevant consonants (p’, t’, k’, q’, ts’, and ch’) are assumed to be pronounced as ejective when it is phonologically possible to do so.

Because the language lacks a grammatic singular-plural distinction, most nouns can be either singular or plural.

A

 * aamu = god, divine being
 * aamujaani = "divine wind" or "god-wind"; comes from a specific mytho-historical context; predates the idea of the Great Journey by millennia but has since become associated with the daramoku/idiom "Wind From the Rising Sun  (tkhazho-has ba jaani, lit. "From-the-rising-sun wind")'', which connotes a cleansing, divine wind.
 * aana = to stand
 * achkhun = broad, wide; may have originally meant "full/fully"; possibly related to okko; variously spelled as acchun, ackhun, etc.
 * achkhora = breadth, width, fullness, splendor, resplendence, greatness. Sometimes simplified as achora or akhora.
 * achkunguro = stout, strong, hardy
 * adai = kindler, one who lights a fire
 * ado = will, force of will
 * adon = time, especially a definite period of time, usually an important or crucial one
 * agi =
 * ajanu = sky/weather/air; may have been a sky-spirit or deity; c.f. aamu, jaani
 * aju =
 * akhaan = rift, gap, canyon, cavity or absence of something
 * akhawo = the throat/throat cavity; by extension, language/speech (c.f. later khawa)
 * akke = hand (usually refers also to the arm)
 * akkejo = artisan
 * aludu = a monastic order or organization
 * amo = far, far away, distant
 * amogai = uncertainty, indecision
 * anda = sublime, exalted, holy; originally from Dai’nos Yll (also anta, ant’a, ando, entu; origin of the name Andomu)
 * andoskho = saint
 * anga = to hold/seize
 * angaino = shackle, chain
 * ango = short or small
 * aqiinu = smoke
 * aqoje = to smell
 * arada = wind, especially a strong wind
 * aru = hill
 * asum(u) = giving, fair
 * atkhada = to strike, to hit
 * atkhe = din, great noise, especially of battle; also understood as "clashing"; possibly related to older words for "punch" or "strike"; may be related to matkha "kill"
 * aya = egg

B

 * baala = to uplift, raise, elevate, . Related to vaalu, hialu.
 * baan = spine; related to things in the back or rear
 * baatan = descendant, heir, or seedling
 * bada = river delta, inlet. Alternate form of vada.
 * baigu = easy
 * baika = root, roots
 * baikhu = network or web, also metaphorically
 * bako = just, righteous, rightful
 * bakontu = justice
 * bala = frost, chill
 * bambita = to promise
 * ban = short form of "bannai", used more generally
 * banghaina = to sense (from baan + ghaina)
 * bannai = soil, ground, land; also world, or more generally, place; it and its short form "ban" see much use in place names, though "bannai" is used more explicitly to refer to realms or fiefs
 * banwa = to cleave, to cut through
 * beka = snow
 * bekkhajo = creature, beast, animal; may have once connoted to concepts of prey animals
 * bela = important, celebratory, festive
 * bele = faithful, loyal
 * belo = singer/poet
 * beme = dam
 * benkata = threshold or gate
 * beno = enemy, foe, especially a respected or worthy enemy
 * bento = graciousness, giving of gifts. Possibly related to ando.
 * bero = rider (also vero)
 * bojo = mother
 * bontu = state of being; usually occurs as a suffix, c.f. “-ness”.
 * bora = maker
 * boran = maker, artisan, creator
 * boro = judge (also spelled as voro)
 * boru = judged one
 * boswi = fort, castle or keep
 * bura = to teach or lecture
 * buran = student, learner
 * buranti = teacher or professor; didact
 * busen = to worship, adore
 * busenko = worshiper, one who worships; in some usages also supplicant, servant

C

 * chaanani = pillar
 * chabano (also chavano) = merchant, trader
 * chabojo = older aunt/mother or matron; honorific term (see also bojo & dzana)
 * chanu = head; by extension, important things; used as a derivational prefix
 * chadomo = Spartan (ch'a + domo); see also ghashanko
 * chahana = "great times" or "glorious times"; refers to the end times or the immediacy of ascension, in the context of the Covenant religion
 * chaka = rain
 * chakita = harvest
 * chamaaro = "the great search", the Covenant's holy mission
 * chambuujo = Hierarch
 * Changgagomo = Halo/Sacred Ring; from ch’an + gagomo
 * chapkhaatu = grace
 * chawaalu = dominion, empire
 * Chawaruutu = Great Journey; from ch’a + waruut’u
 * chigaha = to write; from ch'in "stab/carve" + gakha "stone"
 * chiiwe = inside/within; comes from an old word for lungs or thoracic cavity, over time came to mean inner life overall through euphemistic usage
 * chika = an edge, boundary or border of two things or places
 * chikayonma = a native name for the ruleset governing sound articulation in syllable boundaries, especially in Qerenoka itself
 * chike = to run
 * chin = to stab
 * chuji = awe, wonderment
 * chuke = flying creature; analogous to "bird"; may have also meant "to fly" and connote to various flying-related words
 * chura = belt, girdle, or by extension anything that surrounds
 * churan = girdled, girt, fenced, walled
 * chkhan = all/everything/ever/always
 * chkhiwaje = storm, tempest
 * chkhoda = vessel/container/pot; may be related to words for clay/soil; possibly also "to hold" or "to contain"

D

 * daagha = to worry
 * dago =
 * dama = pasture
 * damato = shepard
 * dana = summer or equivalent
 * daramoku = metaphor, specifically a type of idiom specific to Sangheili or overall Covenant culture, history, and myth. Daramoku are often used in the names of worlds or ships, as well as in coded communication, something that became especially common during the Human-Covenant War, where the humans could not possibly have known the meanings of most cultural metaphors even if they had decoded the surface-level language.
 * darhingu = outer space, from "beyond firmament"
 * desa(n) = august, high, eminent
 * dokkha / dokra = persistence, perseverance
 * domo = human
 * dono = cool-headed, cautious
 * doro =
 * duje = to molt; by extension, to shed, to cast off, or part with, etc.
 * duusa = to abide/last
 * duusani = abiding/enduring/lasting
 * dura = garland, wreath
 * duralo = wreathed one; victor/sovereign
 * duran = red, blazing; also used as a name
 * durat'u = sea monster/sea serpent; mytho-historical origin
 * duren = thunder (also dren in some dialects)
 * Dzaaro = one of the names for the Forerunners. Loanword.
 * dzala = bright, luminous, radiant
 * dzamu = beater, hitter, defeater, bane
 * dzalootu = crystal ("luminous shard")
 * dzana = woman, adult female
 * dzapkha = sibling
 * dziitu = hydrogen
 * dzima = brave
 * dzukiis = radiation
 * dzujiitu = tritium
 * dzuka = nail/claw(s)
 * dzukajo = large/dangerous animal, predator
 * dzuku = to battle
 * dzumu = sharp / to be sharp; used for weapon-related things or things that are sharp/dangerous
 * dzukhuntu = dominance/security
 * dzuna = blade/bladed weapon
 * dzushkha = to aim
 * dzuucha = memory

E

 * eben = good, graceful
 * ebewo = face/likeness; appearance
 * eesho = lithe/lean
 * ekkha = Imp- or goblin-like mythic creature. Related to bekkhajo.
 * elatu = strait, sound
 * ena =
 * enganu - bride, betrothed
 * enkere = reverence, respect (enker in Ikanoro)
 * enma =
 * ento = morning/first light, dawn, rising (sometimes romanized as the name N’tho)
 * entu = holiness, divinity, godhead; derived from the same origin as ando
 * eruma = blazing, bright; sometimes transcribed as erum
 * esgumajo =
 * esgumu = longing, melancholy
 * etan = proud, haughty, willful
 * eto = sword
 * etojo = swordsman
 * etopiri = war
 * etoowu = oath
 * ewoi = personal honor/valor, dignity

G

 * gaama = cloud
 * gaaran = vassal
 * gaaro = place (origin of the -aro suffix)
 * gadi = lower mandible(s), connotes to uncertainty due to involuntary twitch movements of the lower mandibles that betray emotional states and are difficult to master
 * gado = grasp, bite
 * gaibaatu = fortune
 * gaiduje = to sully
 * gaihira = solace, consolation
 * gaikhawa = to guess
 * gaikinatu = regret (also the High Prophet of Regret)
 * gainejo = uncle
 * gaiwaruut = to walk clumsily or stumble
 * gaja = to sunder, to divide
 * gajatu = divided
 * gaju = right (side)
 * gakha = rock/stone
 * gakhadzuucha = archive or vault; from "stone-memory"
 * gakhaebe = statue
 * gakhakhawa = to give a speech or public address
 * gasa = a large, formally defined group of something
 * geka = slow, hulking
 * gelu = foam, spray
 * geno =
 * ghaina = to hear
 * ghaqo = noxious, ill, foul; may have related to corpses
 * ghashanga = join/accompany
 * ghashanko = demon/monster
 * ghazhu = a form of communal dining hall and social space used by warrior-cohorts and aristocrats
 * ghorabeno = veil, shroud, covering
 * ghoti = fish or fish-analogue
 * ghutkho = combat, fight
 * giran = vault
 * goduuka = heavy/weighty
 * golo = grub, worm, snake or serpentine creature
 * gok’u = bag, container
 * gosu = long
 * gusma = friend or lover
 * guson = pond
 * guulo = master/lord
 * guusa =
 * guuso = commander, master

H

 * ha = (chiefly as a prefix) re-
 * haala = strong; (as a verb) to be able to
 * haalajo = "strong one", typically used to refer to a hero
 * haalu = strength, power
 * haan = grave, tomb, burial mound
 * haatu = ability
 * hadaanu = bare, pure or perfect
 * han = (adj.) calm, serene
 * hana = (n.) time; possibly also year/season early on
 * haratkhi = (dialectal) Madness, insanity, terror
 * harusi = tradition, way, school of thought, usually in a secular/philosophical sense (loanword)
 * has = sun, Urs, also associated sun-god (phonetic transcription of early word form)
 * henna = serpent. Also occurs as henga.
 * hesiiku = joining, confluence (especially of rivers)
 * hialu = “crowned”, older word, now more commonly used as the proper name of a mythic hero and astronomical feature, the Orion Nebula (often transcribed as hial, as the u is silent in major dialects). Dialectal words like vaal(u), hyale are yal(u) are etymologically related.
 * Hialu-Achkhora = proper name, Orion Complex; usually romanized as Hial-Achor to better approximate actual pronunciation
 * hien / hi'en = tip, point (usually of a blade). Qerenokized from Zhakhan hien, which is pronounced as a true diphthong; can also be found in the form hiin.
 * hilootu = carbon / graphite / coal (khilutu + ootu, black + shard)
 * hingo = precise
 * hira = (to) praise/bless
 * hirai = blessing(s)
 * hirajo = "blessed one", formed with the adjectival suffix -jo
 * hodu = (to) wait
 * hudo =
 * huki = foam (usually of the waves)
 * hura = gas
 * huraan = growing, rising, upwelling; old word

I

 * ii'en = perfect, divine. Occasionally spelled as Yen or Ien.
 * ikkas = many, multiple, myriad; early loan.
 * ikhu = river or stream, flow, possibly vein > misc. flow- and water-related words
 * iko = eye(s) (noun); also used to refer to sensors in general; to see (verb)
 * ikojanta = vigilance, watchfulness
 * ima = stride, step
 * immu = swamp or marsh
 * inan = half
 * ishe = cold, chilly, cool; also by extension, calm or serene
 * isma = strength and/or fortitude
 * isna = silent, reserved, furtive
 * ito = stern, steadfast; also reliable, trustworthy
 * iwe = to maintain or sustain; from an old word for "to brood" or "raise", may be related to (h)iiwe "lungs"
 * izhu = string/rope/tendon/thread (c.f. later zhuuni)

J

 * jaama = likely a variant or derivative of yaama.
 * jaani = wind, stream (likely derived from jana)
 * jaari = first-person exclusive plural pronoun; “we and not you”
 * jaas =
 * jakkho = road, path, any route by which one travels
 * jala = fair, resplendent. Related to hialu, vaalu. Also occurs as the prefix jal(a)-
 * jalata = resplendence, splendor, greatness
 * jan = first-person singular pronoun; I
 * jana = neck
 * jara = joy, contentment, happiness
 * jaralu = glad, joyful
 * jaren (also jaaren) = wanderer; the proper name of a star, also a clan-name
 * jaru = Honorific title. Commonly transcribed as "Jar" due to silent final vowel.
 * jarutu = cherished
 * jato = horn
 * jaya = moon
 * jega = shadow
 * jeraaku = union or band
 * jiri =
 * jirun = old dialectal word for “shape”, especially in esoteric religious philosophy; features in the name of an offshoot solipsist religion. Also spelled as Djyrn when referring to the religion.
 * jiwale = money/currency
 * jodeen = high point, peak, noontide, period of thriving; also translated as zenith, though rarely used in the astronomical sense
 * jono = a small group, military unit or troop, originally used to refer to flying creatures
 * joori = distant tertiary star Joori/Urs C; originally suspected to have referred to its red color
 * jootu = crimson
 * jora = eager, aggressive, hasty
 * julu = patient (likely origin of the name “Jul”)
 * juranu = secret, hidden
 * juukhawa = to claim (from juu + khawa)
 * juukhojo = Prophet/Prophets
 * juukhuuta = brother/comrade, in a non-biological sense; usually a respected brother in arms or friend
 * juumunnu = prudent, taking appropriate care
 * juun = upper mandible(s); connotes to certainty
 * juunduje = to make look good
 * juuni = good, agreeable (see also juun)

K

 * kaasha = merit
 * kaichen = feminine equivalent to “kaidon” in some dialects; uncommon
 * kaidon = king/high lord; etymology uncertain, possibly from an earlier language; possible original meanings include "ship-maker" (after early statesmens' ability to have fleets built) or simply "family chief/elder", or “high man”
 * kaluuka = coward, general insult (from earlier lakaluuka "water-blood")
 * kandas = city, town
 * kando = citadel or fortress, especially a subterranean one
 * karu = crest
 * kasa = old, venerable
 * ke = second-person singular pronoun; you / thou
 * kel / kelo = "divine light"; associated with ascension beyond physical existence, derived from Kel Darsam
 * kele = faith, trust
 * keleguura = principle, precept
 * kelesaba = a difficult-to-translate concept that connotes a specific religio-cultural piety or righteous normative behavior
 * keli = wing
 * ken = destiny/fate. Also occurs as a shortened form of khena (realm, place), mainly in place names.
 * kesi = pilgrim
 * ketta = home, abode; dialectal (related to tkhet’a, also occurs as kettan)
 * khaela = frontier/march
 * khamushi = a fighter or soldier; one who fights but does not warrant the title of warrior
 * khanu = army, host, often one assembled for a specific theater or operation
 * khanguuso = field master
 * khakheta = manor, household, or (by extension) any building, usually residential
 * khapi = granite
 * khawa = to say
 * khechimo = to reclaim
 * khechijo = reclaimer
 * kheda = to make or create
 * khekhawa = to respond
 * kheluuga = artifact/relic. Formed using the general instrumental prefix + "luuga"
 * khilutu = black
 * khena = state, domain, dominion, realm; sometimes used as a suffix for peoples or nationalities of said realms
 * khobu = shoot/”fire” (command)
 * khojo = to know; used in a wide variety of related terms
 * khoppo = household/immediate family; etymologically related to tkhop’o
 * khoto = lake
 * khoya = wise
 * khuuta = brother
 * kies = dialectal variant of k’iis
 * kiis = light
 * kiisho = Luminary
 * kiicha = beacon
 * kiisokko = lit. "light-plain" or "plain of light", afterlife from one of the early Sangheili religions; used euphemistically for any positive afterlife and sometimes still used to refer to the Great Journey. Analogous to "paradise" or "heaven".
 * kilu = new, early
 * kina = tooth/fang/to bite, by extension relates to various sharp or spike-like things
 * kiri = second-person plural pronoun; “you” when addressing more than one person
 * kkhewuuso = tribe, ethno-linguistic group of people, usually translated as "phyle"
 * kkho = insect, crawling thing (possibly related to gol)
 * koda =
 * koida = stiff, unbreakable
 * kola = trust
 * koma = mountain or hill
 * kon = perch, watch, guardpost
 * konaru = retainer, knight-like warrior in service of a house
 * konta = archaic word for precision, control; now mostly used to refer to a style or genre of narrative dance/musical performance of the same name
 * kora =
 * Koraton = proper name; Andromeda Galaxy; likely mythological origin
 * koron = tower, spire, also fort or outpost; related to the root oro
 * koso = cave, delve
 * kozhuro = ranged weapon; gun
 * kuota = hearty/heartful, vigorous. Also spelled kwota.
 * kuhos = pride, confidence
 * kutan = truthful (older/poetic)
 * kutkho - (to) fight
 * kuucho = warrior
 * kuuchogasa = legion
 * kuuchotkhet'a = warrior creche
 * kuudo = to push
 * kuudokha = a reaction drive or rocket engine, lit. "pusher"
 * kuvaa = infinite, eternal, everlasting
 * kwaro = ridge, escarpment; also spelled as kvaro

L

 * laba = mine, delve, quarry
 * laharu = a predatory animal often found in clan heraldic devices
 * laka = water; root for various liquid words
 * lakabuudo = shore, coastline
 * lakackhuwuni = deuterium
 * lakha = to rise
 * laku =
 * lehe =
 * leko = many, much
 * lete = regal, royal
 * loda = plain/steppe
 * loka = joy (also loka)
 * loso = haste, rush
 * losona = hasty, hurried
 * lugama = fog (possibly related to gaama)
 * lun = dust
 * lunga =
 * luuga = object, thing, device. Used in several affiaxal derivations.
 * luuka = blood
 * luukaikhu = family, house, or clan
 * luukaghaina = to intuit, to know instinctively
 * luukatkhopo = "blood-name"; family name
 * luukawadu = artery, channel, tunnel, by extension any such passage
 * luyi = silence, quietude

M

 * maaro = to seek/search
 * maikhu = tool, device
 * maki = fortunate. Also transliterated as makee.
 * malu = firm, settled, decided
 * mashaani = calm, serene; blissful (originally of wind in the sea)
 * matkha = to kill
 * matkhedu = battle
 * medu =
 * meedo = divine, godly, numinous; loanword. Also occurs in the variant form medu.
 * mene = high, lofty, great
 * mesmajo = healer/nurse
 * mesmo = healing, repairing, mending, also used metaphorically in various contexts
 * mero = wayward; loanword
 * mewura = desert; origin of the -ura suffix
 * mobaatu = revelation
 * moduje = to lose track of
 * mogha = wave
 * moluta = engineer or machinist
 * moqa = pious, holy, sacred
 * Moqachawaalu = "sacred dominion/empire"; usually translated as "Holy Ecumene".
 * mora = to serve
 * moramu = servant, assistant, aide
 * more = blue, indigo
 * mos = mind or brain, reason
 * mosayo = longing, yearning
 * mosiida = bliss, contentment
 * mosudawi = a trance-like state of calm, originally when stalking prey
 * motkha = danger/peril (c.f. matkha, atkhe)
 * mowu = to explore, wander
 * mu = third person animate singular pronoun; he/she/they
 * muda = lord/aristocrat; loan, c.f. guulo
 * muja = pure, esp. in a ritualistic sense
 * munnu = deliberate, careful
 * muulo = shout, yell, howl
 * muuri = third person animate plural pronoun; "they"; also used deferentially in some contexts when addressing a superior

N

 * naakhe = artisanship, art or technology, specifically when considered "proper" (as opposed to heretical forms)
 * naamu = correct, proper, true
 * nan =
 * naru = bearer, holder
 * nas = “with”, usually used as an intensifier, chiefly poetic
 * naska = gleam, glimmer
 * naun = place, dwelling, community
 * nawe = spear (c.f. aawe)
 * naya = to fertilize an egg
 * nejo = father, sire
 * nejomuulo = summons/command; lit. "father-shout"
 * neka = man, adult male
 * nelekkha = immediate family; close household-group
 * nema = Also occurs as neema in some dialects.
 * neri = to last, abide, or persist
 * neritu = warden, keeper
 * nesa = to guide, raise, assist
 * nesi =
 * ngaara = fortress or citadel; comes from a different cultural/historical background than keeps, more urban/imperial; related to ennaara
 * ngachuwo = government or church department, usually translated as "ministry".
 * ngahenuu = government official, usually female
 * ngiita = (verb) to be named/called
 * ngunu = roof or dome
 * nguro = shoulder/shoulders
 * nguusa = glade
 * nila = to fall, to drop
 * nilatu = gravity
 * nira = void, emptiness, vacuum
 * niza = flame
 * noga = hard, firm
 * nogayini = diamond
 * noma = settlement, place of habitation, colony
 * nomu = warden
 * noos = iron/steel
 * noodzamu = smith (noo + samu, “iron-beater”)
 * nora = household
 * noro = kind, kin, by extension any category or group
 * noso = ford, crossing, shallow water
 * nuema (also nwema) = high
 * nuju = cowardly; possibly from "weak", c.f. nujut'u "weakness"
 * nujutu = weakness
 * nuuma = layer, level
 * nusa = light(weight), flimsy

O

 * ogha = foot; may refer to things that are basic-level or foundational
 * okko = plain, steppe or desert, any wide area; also anything wide or big
 * okkona = breadth, expanse, by extension any flat and wide surface; also functions as an adjective (c.f. ackhun)
 * okojuunu = symbol, sigil, emblem
 * olon = azure blue color
 * omodu = great sound, din (Omod in Sonwani)
 * omos = booming, loud, mighty
 * ondo = feast (related to ondu)
 * onkalu = celebration of triumph (loan)
 * onta = middle, medial
 * onto = cape (peninsula)
 * ootu = shard or splinter, usually of rock; later also key
 * opkho = to bend
 * oqo = noble/glorious/exalted, likely as a general concept and as an honorific (e.g. "Noble Prophets") (possibly comes from the same root as okko; may have originally related to large size or stature)
 * oqokhawa = to swear, to make a vow
 * oqotu = glory
 * ori = west
 * oro = to rise
 * oros = reef, island
 * orun = diligence
 * oruna = diligent
 * oskha = usually translated as "reconciliation"; used in various religio-political contexts. Loanword.
 * osoda = gray

P

 * pala = calm, peaceful, serene; older word, mostly poetic; sometimes translated as “halcyon”
 * panka = (Also occurs as panga dialectally/in free variation)
 * para = to think, ponder
 * penaghaawi = lamentation, wailing (loan)
 * pere - draftsman, designer, planner
 * pewa = valor (loan)
 * piri = wrath, passion; also figuratively, war or conflict
 * pkha = multipurpose exclamation/curse/intensifier
 * pkhada = stop, imperative
 * pkhelu = east
 * Pkhiedu = Fied; lesser sun (early form unclear); possibly related to associated seasonal cycles; possible early loan
 * pkhungo = to sleep, to be unconscious
 * pora = skill, ability, craft (especially in making)
 * puhos = mansion, great dwelling
 * puuka = question

Q

 * qadaati = lance (small military unit)
 * qala = cleft, or something cloven
 * qanwa = virtue, honor, fairness
 * qiitu = mercy; also the High Prophet of Mercy
 * Qikostu = Sanghelios' moon Qikost; the name is typically anglicized as such because the final u is reduced.
 * qikosi = "like Qikost"; has various mytho-cultural connotations
 * qkhaamo = shrine
 * qkhan = enemy/foe
 * qkhoso = to walk
 * qkhuugang =
 * qonaya = to be disheartened, lose will (especially to fight)
 * qualo = vassal/bannerman
 * qunu = fist
 * qura = person, individual, sapient being (has various derived meanings, esp. in dialects)
 * quura = Related to the root WURA, c.f. wura, wuras, quuras, oura, ouras, wuraza, wurazha, -uura, kuura

R

 * raahana = the universe/cosmos, or space-time continuum
 * raahu = a religious or philosophical teaching or school of thought, especially relating to the afterlife; c.f. Eng. "way", "path"
 * raas =
 * raazha: unfading, eternal, "evergreen"; originally used for multi-seasonal plants; also used figuratively to refer to spiritual immortality
 * raban = highland, hilly country
 * ragomu = spiral, swirl, vortex
 * rakos = wrath, ire
 * ran = spear, also used figuratively to refer to fighting men, outposts, etc.
 * ranwa = one who fights with a spear, lancer
 * raru = prow, tip, prong, tine, also peak
 * relon = trusty/loyal
 * rehe = hope, specifically a virtuous kind of hope (contrasted with an unfounded or foolish hope)
 * resa = victory
 * rewu = studious, curious. Dialectal variants include refu and the name Ref(f).
 * ren = blade
 * renu = old word for death; early loan; chiefly poetic
 * rhi = star
 * rhigakha = asteroid
 * rhingu = heaven, firmament, welkin, star-dome, “realm of the stars”; sky associated with the numinous; also used to refer to outer space in a poetic or archaic sense
 * rhiruqa = plasma (from "star-fire")
 * rhuumo = a specific term for the integrity or "wholeness" of a social group or community. Possibly a loanword.
 * riikha = crowd (c.f. riikhe "together")
 * riikhe = together
 * riin = first-person inclusive plural pronoun; “we”, including all being spoken of
 * rin = fair, beautiful
 * ripa = large, big
 * risha = to scatter, throw about, sprinkle
 * rishan = scattered, strewn
 * riwu = first snow
 * roka = heart, usually used to refer to both Sangheili hearts similar to how humans typically refer to the lungs as a single unit. Also figuratively used to refer to a variety of qualities, e.g. strength of character, endurance, persistence, etc.
 * rola = spirit/soul
 * rotkho = flesh, meat
 * rulaka = fuel
 * ruqa = fire, heat, etc
 * ruqayini = lechatelierite (from ruq’a + yini “fire-glass”)
 * ruqota = to burn
 * ruuhi = left (side)
 * ruukina = (to) attack
 * ruuku = corpse

S

 * saawa = to smell; to perceive with the sense of smell
 * saba = filial/familial piety
 * saepa = intense joy, elation, delight (loanword)
 * saibo = ash
 * saka = boy, originally had the "son" meaning as well (c.f. shabu)
 * sali = pale
 * sanu = daughter, girl, maiden
 * satkha = to be sure
 * seerai = swamp/moor
 * sepkhalo = disciplined, controlled
 * seretu = city-warden/chieftain
 * shaadatu = loyalty
 * shabu = son, of any age
 * shabui = collective noun used for sons/siblings; typically used to refer to a given group of such, or metaphorically to any cohort.
 * Shako = the Path (in reference to the Covenant religion)
 * Shal'annu = possibly a derivation of archaic words gizhali + lahanu - (hidden) dagger + feud (loan). Also romanized as Shal-annu.
 * shamas = twisted, gnarled, strange, bewildering, confounding, concealing
 * shanda = loyalty, fealty, devotion, reverence; also translated as virtue on some occasions (related to shandi)
 * Shandi = The Covenant; archaic word for alliance or union, chiefly used for the Covenant itself now
 * shanga = to hunt. It root form is one of the postulated origins for the name "Sangheili".
 * shon'ai = a state of zen-like calm in the middle of combat; loosely translated to "Whatever will be, will be"
 * shuluchin = vault, crypt, treasury, reliquary
 * shuuma = will, fortitude
 * shuumatu = willful, forceful
 * sia = white
 * siakaru = an avioid creature found on Nesaroka as well as several other worlds, and the symbol of several early Sangheili colonial clans. It is also the name of a constellation in Nesaroka’s cultural tradition; this constellation is the namesake of the Siakar Expanse domain. Loan from Chiwanu; originally siakar, and still rendered as such in the Ikanoro dialects.
 * sima = man-at-arms, soldier, retainer
 * sinda = a thrown spear, or figuratively any ranged weapon
 * skhora = perceptive, seeing
 * sora = winter
 * soraduju = spring
 * subuuna = high tide, deluge, flood
 * subatu = "subanine", adjectival form of Suban; connotes to things that are ascendant, willful, or powerful
 * subawo = tidal force
 * suda = to prowl/lay in wait; may relate to things that are secret
 * suju = song/poem
 * sujuni = "one who is sung of"; a hero
 * sukangu = older word for speech or language; theorized origin of the name "Sangheili", alongside the word that would evolve into shanga
 * suma = gold
 * sumatu = golden, glorious, shining or gleaming
 * suta = humble
 * suuka = cairn, monument

T

 * tala / talla = bow, possibly meant bowstring at one point
 * tama = tree or tree-like plant
 * tamata = a group of trees, a grove
 * tano = evening, twilight; by extension, fading
 * taru = valley, vale
 * telo = hard/solid, steadfast, unyielding; valiant
 * teri = silt, clay
 * teru = courage
 * tiidiya = to live, to be alive
 * tiis = word; various derivations have to do with words
 * tiiwajo = heretic
 * tighaina = to understand
 * tikhawa = to chat, speak with
 * tipkho = dry; possibly also desert > misc. desert/dryness-related words, incl. geographic features.
 * tkha = third person inanimate singular pronoun; it
 * tkhaari = third person inanimate plural pronoun; “they” when referencing non-people
 * tkhe = kin, clan, family
 * tkhekhojo = family saga/history, usually in poetic/sung form
 * tkheta = clan, kin, or more broadly, kind or “in-group”; originally “nest”, this use is now more marginal; see also ketta
 * tkhetaghutkho = family feud
 * tkhojuun = pride, especially in a righteous sense
 * tkhopo = name, to name
 * tkhoshanda = cultural concept of “ancestral devotion”, proper reverence for one’s ancestors, clan, histories and traditions. Sometimes simplified as Khoshanda or Kosanda in the case of the colony of that name.
 * tkhulo = old, age, aged; later also ancestor
 * tkhungat'u = herald
 * Tkhuyujo = The Ancients / Forerunners
 * toha = quick, fast
 * ton = bold (sometimes transliterated as thon)
 * toumu = speaker, talker, orator; occasionally tutor or teacher
 * tsii = feather
 * tsuba = sullen, gloomy
 * tsuwa = fount, wellspring
 * tukha = firm, solid; occurs as a name (Ikanoro: t’ukra, latinized as tukra)
 * tulu = jewel or gem; may be romanized as tul
 * tumi = fog, mist
 * turi = gift
 * tuwa = peak

U

 * ubaalu = Crown, headdress. Also transliterated as ubaal or ubal in some names due to the near-silent final u.
 * udaru = spear, lance (weapon)
 * udin =
 * ulan = sickle, curved shape; also the name of a traditional constellation
 * uma = leaf
 * umatu = general term for the range of colors ranging from what humans perceive as purple to ultraviolet; comes from the color of many Sanghelian plants
 * umazha = foliage
 * unnos = penance
 * uriwa = hard-working
 * usaan = great fire, burning, blaze, conflagration
 * usu = night, darkness
 * usuuba = rest/respite (especially unihemispheric Sangheili sleep; also rest in general); also to be disinterested or to ignore
 * usuwaruut'u = dream (chiefly poetic)
 * utara = shore, coast
 * uuna = sea, ocean; possibly lake
 * uutu = evil, foul
 * uzhe = lightning

V

 * vaalu = Cherished, treasured. Also dialectally vaal. Probably related to hial.
 * vaiku = swift, lean, quick (dialectal)
 * vata = cunning/crafty; dialectal
 * volu = flame
 * vuraan = accord, alliance; usually translated as "concord" specifically in the name of the Concord of Reconciliation.

W

 * waadeja = to shake
 * waara = to howl, or to cry out
 * wadu = trunk, of a tree or any plant
 * walo = tall/high (of a person or living thing)
 * waluujo = one who is faithful, devoted, zealous (chiefly in a positive sense); Zealot
 * wamu = keen, good, solid
 * wamiko = keen-eyed
 * wani = language (loanword)
 * waru = motion (older word)
 * waruto = to go
 * waruutu = journey
 * wasi =
 * watti = standard, flag, banner
 * wele = ship, vessel (by extension any vehicle)
 * welejono = flotilla/battle group or impermanent fleet
 * welekkhosa = retreat/flight, especially with ships; possibly poetic
 * wena = cold
 * wensi =
 * wesa = sudden
 * woludabo = an exclamation of alert to draw attention to something
 * woni = day
 * wuja = to hatch; may later have come to mean word related to coming or arriving
 * wujano = newly-hatched; by extension, new or fresh
 * wula = decision
 * wularu = decisive
 * wura =
 * wurazha =
 * wure = day
 * wuunsi = sleep/dream

Y

 * yaama = mist/mists, also air, vapor, or poetically, atmosphere. See also jaama. Also yalma in some Ikanoro dialects.
 * yenu = skin, hide
 * yi = clear, transparent
 * yini = glass
 * yonma = gentleness or a gliding motion; also used figuratively to refer to things that are gentle or smooth
 * yos = soil, ground, land; also commonly used to refer to a planet
 * yuru = the right heart

Z

 * zama = island
 * zaya = to expand
 * zauyo = harmony, peace
 * zesi = silver
 * zhara = truth
 * zharu = bright (also as “Zhar”; related to dzala)
 * zhuro = weapon
 * zhuuni = strand, strip, of cloth or metaphorically, especially in astronomical use (loanword)
 * zon = first
 * zuka = base, of a pillar or building, etc.

A few notes on naming things
One may note that there are many names that diverge from the phonetic rules of Qerenoka listed above (e.g. nonstandard consonant clusters, characters, or non-permitted consonant endings). This is not too bothersome, given the ambiguities listed above; not only is the romanization of the language approximate at the best of times due to the alien sounds present, there is also much variety even among native speakers due to differing dialects as well as different species speaking the language.

Alien proper names come to the UNSC from various sources: either orally by members of Covenant species (through overheard conversations, or the interrogation of POWs, for example), or through various written records or transmissions, usually in digital form, intercepted by UNSC signals intelligence or (in a post-war context) freely given by UNSC allies. Official ministry communications usually use standard Qerenoka, while individual Covenant members tend to speak their own dialects; all those in ministry service are expected to speak Qerenoka at least on some level, though the implementation of this varies greatly especially among the lower ranks, and is seldom observed in legions more tenuously attached to the ministerial hierarchy. Still, the UNSC uses the names and word forms found in official records where possible.

Throughout the decades since first contact, differing spellings and romanization standards have been the norm; only in the post-war era has a more fixed romanization system gained ground, but by that point many "creative" spellings or reinterpretations had become established in common use.

Not all Covenant names are in Qerenoka, though many are; members of the Covenant speak many languages, and human xenolinguists are not always sure which language a name or word is from. Though most Covenant worlds have a "Sangheilized" name, it's by no means a guarantee that a Kig-Yar trader, for example, will use it or that he will pronounce it the "right" way. This also means that not all names have a direct meaning in Sangheili specifically.

With all that being said, it's best practice to at least try and mimic the aesthetic of the language when creating names- e.g. something like "Poxhagh" doesn't really sound like Sangheili, and neither does 343i canon's "Codisfold". Some good rules of thumb to follow:


 * Avoid consonant clustering, and follow each consonant with a vowel (s, n and m can be followed by some - but not all - consonants; see the Phonotactics section above). Double vowels work well too.
 * End the word either in a vowel or -n, -s, or -ng, though the last one is the least common. Some other consonants like r, l, or t, may occasionally be used with the implicit suggestion that a final vowel that is present but silent in the original language (likely /u/) has been omitted in the anglicized version of the name. Ending a word in some of the more complex consonants will look out of place, however.
 * Avoid c, f, th, and x, or use them responsibly. These all do occur in various names (e.g. Thel, Xytan) but working with the letters and letter combinations listed in the sound table helps maintain the distinct sound of the language. Any deviations from this can be assumed to be either dialectal or flourishes by the translator.
 * Similarly, certain consonant combinations can easily make a word sound less alien, such as ld, lm, ls, etc. Figuring out alternatives that still maintain the structure of the word usually helps.
 * As mentioned above, apostrophes shouldn't be used just to make a name look more exotic. They represent either ejective consonants (though these don't really need to be marked all the time unless transcribing actual alien speech), or glottal stops, in which capacity they're subject to the same rules as any consonant sound, and only really useful in conveying where the pause between certain vowels goes. They can occasionally be used to convey syllable boundaries if it's crucial to understanding how a word is pronounced, though.
 * Something else to avoid are special diacritics, like so: á, ê,ï. Like extra apostrophes, these just make a name harder to remember and type properly. Similarly, avoid weird stylistic flourishes like capital letters mid-word. Romanization isn't supposed to be fancy, it's supposed to get across how the word sounds like as transparently as possible.
 * Additionally, a name will be more interesting if you can actually make it meaningful using the various derivational systems listed on this page. If not, it's fine to assume it's a loanword.

Place names
The Covenant tendency to use "Adjective Noun" in names is most often integrated to the structure of the language via affixes and word compounding. But sometimes these kinds of names aren't even formed from separate words in the original language. Often the original Covenant names (for ships, worlds, etc.) may also contain more semantic content than is conveyed in the English equivalent, but ONI and UNSC translators especially seek to keep their translations as curt as they can; yet we do end up with names like "Long Night of Solace", which is an approximation of a shorter phrase in the original language; "Truth and Reconciliation" is also obviously a case of human translators picking the closest term that fits with the original concept. Such names are most likely to be culturally specific metaphors or idioms (daramoku) that mean a lot to the Covenant (or Sangheili in particular), and often have their roots in millennia-old legends and philosophical tomes.

Examples
 * Saepon'kal = Joyous Exultation (Saep(a) + on'kalu, intensifying prefix + triumph-celebration, feat. dropped final vowel)
 * Malurok = Decided Heart (Malu + roka, feat. dropped final vowel)
 * Nesarok = Guiding Heart (Nesa + roka, feat. dropped final vowel)
 * Beledokha = Faithful Perseverance (Bele + dokha)
 * Sabaaro = Filial Piety+(suffix denoting place)

Notes
 * "Sangheili" as a name is somewhat equivalent to "Earthling", in that it is derived from the planet and came after space travel? Different word for "people" or species designation that got gradually supplanted? "Sanghelios" means (or originally meant) "earth-sphere" or "earth air sphere" (could also have evolved into a word for world or planet)? (note that the Lights of Sanghelios are called Helios for short, so this also has to make sense unless we assume a very lax translation convention)
 * Other species' names and homeworld names are a mix of Sangheilized species' endonyms (e.g. Jiralhanae, Kig-Yar) and Sangheili/Covenant exonyms (e.g. Unggoy, Balaho).

Given names
The official lore tends to be rather all over the place in regard to Sangheili names. Some are very plain and simple, as those in Halo: The Flood, and some get very baroque, like many of those in Ghosts of Onyx. It can be assumed that these don't come from the same language for the most part or that they use different romanization conventions, because otherwise we just have conventions where anything goes. As detailed above, the phonotactics of the language we use favor simpler names with few tricky consonant clusters, outside the more exotic sounds transcribed using multiple consonants.

Sangheili given names are often meaningful, though not always in a form of the language familiar in the modern day. Given names may describe an individual's characteristics and traits, and may as such be derived from adjectives. Such names are usually given in childhood or adolescence when outward traits have started to become apparent. Some may be based on mythological figures or one's ancestors. There are names that are used regularly in given families and areas, and a single individual will often have more than one name for different uses, or given at different points in one's life.

Sangheili honorific suffixes (e.g. ee, ai) are contextual and harmonized to the name, following the same phonotactic rules as usual. For example, if the basic form of a clan name ends in a vowel, the service suffix -ee is preceded by an epenthetic consonant, usually m or n, though others such as r and l do occur. If the name ends in a consonant, it's usually going to be s or n, though others occur in dialects; in such cases the suffix is going to be a plain -ee. If the final vowel of a name is silent or weakly realized, however, that vowel is replaced by -ee. The standard form of the name Vadam, for example, is grammatically "Vadamu" (as notated in the High Ecumenic syllabary), but because the u is silent, it's usually omitted in romanization.

Sometimes we see irksome consonant clusters like in Wattinree, but in such cases it can be assumed that whoever translated the name missed a reduced intermediate vowel, and the name is more properly transcribed as "Wattinaree", though depending on the dialect, the medial /a/ may not be realized in the spoken language.

One important note about Sangheili names is that they don't regularly use -a as a feminine suffix like many Indo-European languages do; many male Sangheili names end in -a (e.g. Zuka, Koida, Tokra, Orna). Some feminine names do have -a endings as well, but this is hardly indicative of a trend. It is possible that feminine names use more vowel endings than male ones, especially u or i or long vowels (e.g. -uu, -ee), but there doesn't seem to be a definite trend.

Resources

 * David J. Peterson's documentation of dialogue in the TV show
 * Peterson's reference for pronunciation
 * Peterson's notes on transcribed lines
 * Peterson's draft for a writing system
 * The Ballad of Kel Darsam, translated